vestigial structures in giraffes

Bock, F. et al. 2001 WGBH Educational Foundation and Clear Blue Sky Productions, Inc. All rights reserved. The advent of gene-editing methods provide a means of testing these hypotheses by introducing the unique amino acid substitutions seen in giraffe into the homologous genes of model organisms and determining the functional consequences. Most have a functioning right lung and a vestigial left lung, 18 although two lungless species have been described. Biologa de los microorganismos. Biological evolution is still not well understood by general public, and when we speak of it in our language abound expressions that confuse even more how mechanisms that lead to species diversity work. Uncategorized . Pearson Educacin. Res. Post author: Post published: 22/06/2022; Post category: luxury picnic houston; Post comments: . The results of the PSG analysis are given for the 70 MSA genes in Supplementary Table 4. Zool. To test for signatures of positive selection acting on giraffe lineage for each of the genes, we compared the likelihood scores of selection models implemented in CODEML in the PAML package, version 4.7 (ref. The complementary DNAs from both giraffe and okapi liver tissue were truncated in exon 5, indicating the use of a cryptic 5-splice site resulting in a 264-amino acid internal deletion not seen in any other vertebrate. Nature 329, 5960 (1987). Answers: 1 Get Iba pang mga katanungan: Science . Karyotype evolution of giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) revealed by cross-species chromosome painting with Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and human (Homo sapiens) paints. 2, 150393 (2015). and L.W.C. All bovids (bulls, goats, sheep, antelopes) have horns, including the females in many species. Galaxy tools to study genome diversity. Physiol. E. coevolution. In fact, despite their different neck sizes, humans and giraffes have exactly seven vertebrae bones in their neck. Vestigiality describes homologous characters of organisms which have lost all or most of their original function in a species through evolution. Circulation 104, 729734 (2001). Enrichment analysis based on gene function (gene ontology (GO) biological processes) and pathway relationships Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) revealed elevation of dN or for giraffe in genes related to metabolism (tricarboxylic acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation and butyrate), growth and development (cell proliferation, skeletal development and differentiation), the nervous system and cardiac muscle contraction (Supplementary Table 2). J. Physiol. As we have discussed, due to the alleged magical powers of rhinoceros horns in the traditional medicine, we are extinguishing rhinoceroses just like with are doing with the pangolin for a handful of keratin. Pattern and timing of diversification of Cetartiodactyla (Mammalia, Laurasiatheria), as revealed by a comprehensive analysis of mitochondrial genomes. Proc. 1. D.R.C., M.A., W.C.M., P.M., B.C.M., C.H. 80, 269302 (2005). Susaeta. Genes exhibiting positive selection in giraffe were enriched in lysosomal transport, natural killer cell activation, immune response, angiogenesis, protein ADP ribosylation, blood circulation and response to pheromones (Supplementary Table 3). Solounias, N. The remarkable anatomy of the giraffes neck. The giraffe and okapi sequence data were also used to generate a draft genome assembly with a total length of 2.9 and 3.3Gb for giraffe and okapi, respectively (Supplementary Table 2). 3d). Mol. Integr. Cernohorska, H. et al. It is authentication of evolution and hence, were helpful in explaining adaptation. The BWA-MEM programme was executed with default parameters and statistics were extracted using the samtools stats tool. Physiol. Rep. 2, 980 (2012). The whole-genome sequence of two Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis. 85, 354363 (2009). Nature 421, 961966 (2003). 31, 334341 (2003). Such a structure can arise due to gene mutation which causes a change in the proteins. 4). Google Scholar. Lankester, R. On certain points in the structure of the cervical vertebrae of the okapi and the giraffe. For these 70 genes, the amino acid substitutions unique to giraffe were confirmed in 2 individual Masai giraffes (MA1 and NZOO) and confirmed in an individual Rothschild and Reticulated giraffe including FGFRL1, FOLR1, RCAN3, AXIN2 and HOXD9. The pecoran ancestor that gave rise to the horned, even-toed ungulates is purported to have had a karyotype of 2n=5860 as exemplified by cattle46. Giraffes elevated stature enables it to feed on acacia leaves and seedpods that are highly nutritious but also contain toxic alkaloids. 4.9. Hernandez Fernandez, M. & Vrba, E. S. A complete estimate of the phylogenetic relationships in Ruminantia: a dated species-level supertree of the extant ruminants. To identify changes that potentially underlie these unique morphological and physiological adaptations, we analysed the coding sequences of orthologous genes in giraffe, okapi and cattle. Article Biochem. Evolution proponents typically contend that such structures are best explained as remnants of evolutionary history. Lou, Z., Minter-Dykhouse, K., Wu, X. See more. Mitochondrial metabolism and volatile fatty acids transport genes are also evolutionarily diverged in giraffe and may be related to its unusual diet that includes toxic plants. BORG1 and RCAN3, which are highly expressed in the heart and purported to have important functions related to cell shape and cardiac muscle contraction, respectively, are also significantly diverged in giraffe32,33. Biochem. To complete the annotation for these genes, the giraffe and okapi scaffolds containing these genes were identified. These organisms are said to have undergone through the divergent evolution. Surely they played a more important role in its ancestors like the Sivatherium, the largest giraffid that has ever existed. To determine whether substitutions unique to Masai giraffe were conserved in other giraffe subspecies, we performed targeted sequencing of several genes in Rothschild (G.c. Constitutive phosphorylation of MDC1 physically links the MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 complex to damaged chromatin. Dimitrova, N. & de Lange, T. MDC1 accelerates nonhomologous end-joining of dysfunctional telomeres. In addition to being present in the rumen epithelial cells, MCT1 is highly expressed in the heart, skeletal muscle and the nervous system where it acts to transport volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and lactate. Fossils: This PowerPoint on The Fossil Record is geared to any Middle or High School Science or Biology class/grade. Over time, they may be phased out through selective pressure. For instance, the tiny vestigial leg bones found in some snakes reflect that snakes had a four-legged ancestor. In addition, several identified genes functionally intersect metabolism, growth and cardiovascular function, suggesting that giraffes unique features may have co-evolved to elevate its stature, adapt its metabolism for more toxic food sources and adapt its cardiovascular and nervous system to the increased demands imposed by its unique morphology. PLoS ONE 9, e101081 (2014). Bioinformatics 30, 3137 (2014). was supported by the Tanzania Commission of Science and Technology, COSTECH, Tanzania. Thus, they provide strong evidence of common ancestry and can help us trace the evolutionary origin of the species with the vestigial structures. D.R.C. Brondum, E. et al. Brown, D. M. et al. Physiol. For instance, in the human body, an example of an anatomical part is the skeletal muscle or inner ear. Biol. Antlers only exist in males of the Cervidae family, except for the caribou or reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), in which both males and most of females have antlers. 14, 988995 (2004). Mice lacking the folic acid-binding protein Folbp1 are defective in early embryonic development. 13, 24982504 (2003). In some species they grow throughout life. Philos. retulata) giraffe used genomic DNA that we isolated from primary fibroblast cell cultures obtained from Dr Oliver Ryder at the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research. Nucleic Acids Res. 17, 129132 (2009). Theory of Evolution has various consequences, such as the existence of a common ancestor and that therefore, that we are animals. Seventy genes were identified that exhibited MSAs based on amino acid sequence divergence as evaluated by neighbour-joining phylogenetic analysis of mammalian orthologous proteins, enrichment of nonsynonymous substitutions, unique amino acid substitutions at sites otherwise fixed in mammals, substitutions predicted to cause functional changes by Polyphen2 analysis and substitutions under positive selection. Mdc1 couples DNA double-strand break recognition by Nbs1 with its H2AX-dependent chromatin retention. For example, homologous structures include the limbs of mammals, such as bats, lions, whales . Left ventricular morphology of the giraffe heart examined by stereological methods. Chromosome Res. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/, Agaba, M., Ishengoma, E., Miller, W. et al. Strictly horns are two bony structures that emerge from the frontal bones of the skull, theyare permanent (never fall off) and unbranched. Unfortunately, its carriers are objective of hunters, for the mere achievement of their trophy. In Spain there are more than one million people with a hunting license. Vestigial legs are a clue that snakes descended from lizards. The yak genome and adaptation to life at high altitude. All of them have sharp ends. Evol. Vestigial metapodials in the Okapi and Giraffe. The sheep genome illuminates biology of the rumen and lipid metabolism. In contrast, species with larger antlers do not have these developed tusks. Biol. Cell Biol. Vestigial organs are often used as evidence to argue in favor of Darwinian evolution. It is present in some mammals like rodents, primates (superorder: eurachontoglires) and help in digesting cellulose and other such indigestible . Second, reference contigs were ignored if the depth of coverage was too high or too low according to the LanderWaterman statistic. . Giraffe genome sequence reveals clues to its unique morphology and physiology. Gigascience 1, 18 (2012). Get what matters in translational research, free to your inbox weekly. Unlike horns, antlers do grow out of bony structures (pedicle) found on the side of the frontal bones. C) Darwin's theory emphasized that populations vary and change . The blood vessel walls in the lower extremities are greatly thickened to withstand the increased hydrostatic pressure, and the venous and arterial systems are uniquely adapted to dampen the potentially catastrophic changes in blood pressure when giraffe quickly lowers its head to drink water1,5,6,7,8,9,10,11. Physiol. Interestingly, Badlangana et al.22 speculated that an inhibitor of FGF signalling might be responsible for modulating the size of giraffe cervical vertebrae based on the discovery that chemical inhibition of FGF signalling increased somite size in the chick embryo24. Body hair (Arrector Pili) Tailbone (Coccyx) Male nipples. GOOSE BUMPS Known medically as cutis anserina, goose bumps (so dubbed for the skin's resemblance to a plucked goose) are. All that remains are vestigial structures of the lateral ventricles, and only in rare pathological cases do humans have small air sacs (Stell and Maran 1975). volume7, Articlenumber:11519 (2016) Accuracy and power of bayes prediction of amino acid sites under positive selection. The observed distinctive changes in these genes may provide clues as to the evolutionary origins of giraffes high blood pressure, increased cardiac output and modified vasculature. The pronghorn has different horns than the bovids: they are branched and the keratinized covers change annually, whereas in bovids are permanent. 3a) in the domain that interacts with FGF ligands. Giraffe genome sequence reveals clues to its unique morphology and physiology. Researchers have historically considered the human appendix to be a vestigial structure. (c) Genes encoding key enzymes in butyrate metabolism and downstream mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation pathways have diverged in giraffe including the monocarboxylate transporter (MCT1), acyl-coenzyme A synthetase-3 (ACSM3), short-chain specific acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (ACADS), NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1 subcomplex subunit 2 (NDUFB2) and succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur subunit (SDHB). Find out more in the following post. J. Physiol. 14, 219 (2014). Following a flood in the area, all shorter plants were destroyed and only tall trees remain. We thank Carly Driebelbis and Michael Potter for constructing Giraffe Genome website (https://giraffegenome.science.psu.edu). These selected genes were further compared with orthologues across a large set of mammals, including 14 other cetartiodactyls, to more fully assess evidence of positive selection, relative amino acid sequence divergence and to identify amino acid substitutions unique to giraffe among eutherians. Exp. Included among the MSA genes in giraffe are those involved in the catabolism of volatile fatty acids such as butyrate (MCT1, ACSM3 and ACADS) or downstream oxidative phosphorylation that generate ATP (NDUB2 and SDHB) (Fig. Regul. Qiu, Q. et al. Ratan, A. Integr. J. Theor. Red bracket in lower panel corresponds to the sequence in the upper panel. In some species they grow throughout life. Comp. Both the evolutionist and creationist can explain vestigial eyes. SURVEY . Yang, Z., Wong, W. S. & Nielsen, R. Bayes empirical bayes inference of amino acid sites under positive selection. Paton, J. F., Dickinson, C. J. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Anat. Vestigial organs are generally defined as structures having lost their original evolutionary function. Rec. The human vermiform appendix is a vestigial structure; it no longer retains its original function. 9, 62296232 (2010). Tags: Topics: Question 14 . vestigial structures that you can find among the Caminalcules. Both hind and forefeet are mesaxonic with 3 digits each; each digit with a small hoof. 3c). Genet. Over time, these traits and behaviors become what are. Gene 407, 159168 (2008). Shannon, P. et al. Nature 421, 957961 (2003). Vestigial definition, of, relating to, or of the nature of a vestige: a vestigial tail. The alternative hypothesis that positive selection occurs on the foreground branches (>1) is compared with the null hypothesis, where =1 is fixed, using an LRT62. L.P. provided the okapi tissue samples. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. [2] structures in taxa for which, to our knowledge, vestigial structures had not been previously documented, we examined more than one specimen per species when possible ( T able 1 ). SO IF WE COME FROM MONKEYS, WHY DO STILL MONKEYS EXIST? Neck of Giraffe is an example of which concept ? So few people (sic) doubts about the heliocentric theory (the Earth rotates around the Sun), or the gravitational theory of Newton, but in the popular imagination some people believe that the theory of evolution made by Charles Darwin (and Alfred Russell Wallace) is simply a hypothesis and has no evidence to support it. La evolucin de las especies. and M.A. Third eyelid (Plica semilunaris) Now we will try and understand the organs and their functions (if they had any) that they used to carry out before they became dormant! Among mammals, giraffe has some of the most challenging physiological and structural problems imposed by its towering height. They evolve so quickly that within a few years were selected the fittest to survive our antibiotics. Vestigial structures are fascinating. FGFRL1 is known to be essential for normal skeletal and cardiovascular development in humans and mice25,26,27, and the FGF pathway regulates somite size51. provided the Nashville Zoo (NZOO) giraffe tissues samples. Ear muscles and the tail bones are examples of vestigial structures in our own species. J. Comp. Biol. The truth is that we dontcome from monkeys, we are monkeys, or to be more rigorous, apes. Commun. Vestigial Structures Explained Traits that have arisen as a result of common evolutionary descent are said to be . Integr. D. the species have very different ancestors. Extensive population genetic structure in the giraffe. sweet things to write in a baby book. Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Translational Research newsletter top stories in biotechnology, drug discovery and pharma. In addition to its role in cellular folate transport, FOLR1 is internalized, processed and transported to the nucleus where it regulates components of the FGF and NOTCH pathways30. Vctor Quesada, Sandra Freitas-Rodrguez, Carlos Lpez-Otn, Daniel E. Chavez, Ilan Gronau, Robert K. Wayne, Feng Zhu, Zhong-Tao Yin, Zhuo-Cheng Hou, Jocelyn Plassais, Jaemin Kim, Elaine A. Ostrander, Markus Bastir, Daniel Garca-Martnez, Fred Spoor, Andrew W. Thompson, M. Brent Hawkins, Ingo Braasch, Sagar Sharad Shinde, Sandhya Sharma, Nagarjun Vijay, Nature Communications The average depth of read coverage for the nucleotide differences identified using the dog reference assembly and applied in subsequent analyses were 20.0 for the giraffe from MA1, 21.6 for the Nashville Zoo (NZOO) giraffe and 16.8 for the okapi. In parallel, we employed Polyphen2 analysis21 to identify genes that contain amino acid substitutions that are predicted to cause a significant alteration in function and screened for genes that exhibited evidence for positive selection. They are permanent, not branched and they are always covered with hair and skin. Endo, H. et al. al. Google Scholar. Molecular cytogenetic insights to the phylogenetic affinities of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). J. Biol. To obtain All libraries were prepared and sequenced by the Penn State Genomics Core Facility at University Park, PA. 1. In most cases, incomplete coverage of these genes was due to the fact that the reference cattle gene model that was used was incomplete relative to other mammals. PubMedGoogle Scholar. Biophys. 94, 1117 (2009). In assessing unique substitutions and constructing phylogenetic trees, all available mammalian orthologues of sufficient sequence quality were used. After the reproductive period the hormonal levels fall and the photoperiod decrease, which causes the pedicle to lose calcium, it weakens the union between itself and the horn and the horn ends up falling. Changes in the genetic material (usually DNA) are caused by: Populations that have more genetic variability are more likely to survive if happen any changes in their habitat. Four classes of sites are assumed in the model and codons are categorized into these site classes based on foreground and background estimates of . When the horns begin to grow, they do not do it directly from the bone, but from the connective tissue. Vestigial . Our tailbone, also known as a coccyx, is a series of small vertebrae at the bottom of the . Such features include not only anatomical structures but also physiological processes, biochemical reactions, and even behaviors. The Whole Genome Shotgun project of G. camelopardalis tippelskirchi (MA1) has been deposited at DDBJ/ENA/GenBank under the accession LVKQ00000000 and the version described in this paper is version LVCL01000000. This similarity suggests human and giraffe necks are. Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species.It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species).. Biol. Cytogenet. However, giraffe and okapi have unusual karyotypes among pecorans exhibiting reduced chromosome number of 2n=30 and 2n=4446, respectively, due to Robertsonian centric fusions of acrocentric chromosomes. First, TruSeq adapters from mate-pair data were removed using Nesoni default parameters (v0.115) (https://github.com/Victorian-Bioinformatics-Consortium/nesoni). Gigascience 2, 17 (2013). The growth of the antlers has several phases: A, B, C: 1, 15 y 30 days of growht. Modulating the posterior to anterior gradient of fibroblast growth factor signalling or changing the cyclical expression of genes in the NOTCH or WNT signalling pathways could potentially modulate somite size. Do you have any questions about evolution? & Chen, J. MDC1 is coupled to activated CHK2 in mammalian DNA damage response pathways. The same paired-end and mate-pair reads that were used to assemble were mapped back to the giraffe and okapi assemblies. Mol. This is because they also use them during fights. PBS KIDS for Parents Parenting tips on raising children, planning birthdays & more. It is no longer needed to break down complex cellulose in our diet like for our common ancestors. Bulls, deer, rhinos all of them have structures on their heads that we call horns, but they are not all the same. Authors: F. C. FRASER Abstract In the Okapi vestiges of the second and fifth metapodials may be present but they are variable in occurrence and. Over 400 genes were identified from the giraffeokapicattle analysis that exhibited some degree of genetic differentiation in giraffe by the aforementioned analysis. Hassanin, A. et al. We can tell age and sex of a giraffe by its ossicones: if they are thin and ended up in a tuft of hair they are young ones or females, while males do not usually have hair on its top. Third, regions with an unusually high putative rate of interspecies differences were ignored, to lessen the impact of duplications and low-complexity regions. Currently, genetic analyzes have contributed so much data that they make so difficult to redesign the classical Dariwns tree. The initial sequence reads from giraffe and okapi were aligned to the 19,030 cattle (Bos taurus) references transcripts17 to predict homologous genes (Supplementary Table 1), which yielded 17,210 giraffe and 17,048 okapi genes. First, reads were required to have a best alignment to the reference assembly with at least 3% more identical nucleotides than the second-best alignment. Among the 70 genes exhibiting MSA in giraffe, FGFRL1 is the strongest candidate for directly having an impact on the unique growth of the axial and appendicular skeleton and the cardiovascular system. C. R. Biol. Mediator of DNA damage checkpoint 1 (MDC1) regulates mitotic progression. CAS Townsend, K. et al. 1. C. Vestigial structure D. exaptation nipples of men nipples of women long neck of giraffes for feeding on the tops of trees birds fly during winter because they can find more food light bones of flying birds. Protection against high intravascular pressure in giraffe legs. 68). ISSN 2041-1723 (online). The sequences that aligned to the reference genome as described above were sorted by the start position of their alignment to the reference genome. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. Characterization of the first FGFRL1 mutation identified in a craniosynostosis patient. In fact, they already appear in the fetus as cartilaginous structures and do not merge into the skull until the age of 4, between the frontal and parietal bones. As maximum likelihood methods designed to detect episodes of positive selection are sensitive to taxa sample size63, we re-analysed the initial PSG candidates list by including the orthologues of all mammals for which high-quality sequence data were available (1045 species). Evolution can be observed in beings with a very high reproduction rate, for example bacteria, since mutations accumulate more quickly. The blood pressure of giraffe is 2.5 higher than man, the left ventricle of the heart is enlarged and the blood vessel walls of the lower extremities are greatly thickened1,31. So merely pointing to a vestigial structure isn't good enough. Some branches stop growing (species become extinct), while others continue to diversify. and P.M. performed the genome assemblies. 2002. If they have benefits, they will pass to the next generations. Jugular venous pooling during lowering of the head affects blood pressure of the anesthetized giraffe. Physiol. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the articles Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. 155, 736757 (2009). Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome facial dysmorphic features in a patient with a terminal 4p16.3 deletion telomeric to the WHSCR and WHSCR 2 regions. Okapi (Okapia johnstoni), the giraffes closest relative and the only other extant member of the Giraffidae family, provides a useful comparison, because it does not share these unique attributes seen in giraffe13. Reads were discarded if the above process revealed evidence of insufficient read quality or instability of the genomic region, using three criteria. As you may assume at this point, no, giraffes do not have true horns, but they also have two structures in the head, males, females and newborns. Badlangana, N. L., Adams, J. W. & Manger, P. R. The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes? A)the spider B) giraffe C) T. rex D) giraffe & bird (equally) . 11 Jun 2022. Two giraffe subspecies are nearly extinct and overall the number of giraffes have declined by 40% since 2000, due to poaching and habitat loss16. Mate-paired libraries were also prepared from the MA1 Masai giraffe and okapi, and sequenced to increase coverage and to span repetitive sequence elements. Bootstrapping (n=100) was used to test the robustness of the resulting phylogenies. These data were analysed extensively on the Galaxy platform66,67 to determine enrichment of dN and dN/dS () in giraffecattle as compared with okapicattle. Physiol. Facchin, F. et al. 22, 24722479 (2005). The unique giraffe substitutions occur in the FGF-binding domain region flanking the N-terminal cysteine (asterisk) of the Ig-III loop (lower panel). Network analyses based on GO biological process revealed eight functional clusters among the 70 MSA genes including development, cell proliferation, metabolism, blood pressure and circulation, nervous system, double-strand DNA break repair, immunity and centrosome function (Fig. We found that FGFRL1, a decoy FGF receptor, AXIN2, a negative regulator of the WNT pathway, and three genes in the NOTCH pathway including NOTCH4, JAG1 and DLL3 exhibit amino acid sequence divergence in giraffe and exhibited multiple unique amino acid substitutions compared with other eutherians. Neuroscience 148, 522534 (2007). 305, R1021R1030 (2013). Not exactly vestigial, but another good example is the vagus nerve. Theories can be modified, improved or revised if new data dont continue to support the theory, but they are always based on some data, repeatable and verifiable experiments by any researcher to be considered valid. Related Biology Terms The mappings between giraffeokapi nucleotide difference and the reference assembly allowed us to predict amino-acid difference (in the case of nonsynonymous protein-coding differences) as follows. Zool. The more harmful the vestigial structures, the faster it takes to phase them out. Genet. Just another site. vestigial structures in giraffes. Prentice Hall. J. Biol. 76, 217224 (1983). An anatomical structure is a body part, such as the spinal cord, in an organism. It is what is known as natural selection, one of the main mechanisms of evolution. Then, KmerGenie (v1.6269)56 was executed with default parameters on both data sets, to determine best k-mer sizes for assembly. M.A. Most people don't think of the tailbone as being useless, but for the most part, it is. Slider with three articles shown per slide. Joberty, G. et al. B. the structures are identical. Piedrahita, J. 24, 15861591 (2007). CAS Li, H. & Durbin, R. Fast and accurate short read alignment with Burrows-Wheeler transform. We have many evidences and in this post we will not delve into them. A. Homologous structure B. Analogous structure C. vestigial structure 2 See answers Advertisement wonderfulcreatu Interspecies variant nucleotides were identified as follows. Another so-called vestigial organ finds a function. Camb. Bulls, deer, rhinos all of them have structures on their heads that we call horns, but they are not all the same.

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